Posted on

Learning theories, part 2: Do humans and other animals need different theories of learning?

Search and rescue training with Skye in Scotland

The exploration of learning and behaviour has led to the emergence of several theoretical frameworks, among which ecological psychology and behaviourism (applied to humans and other animals), and cognitivism (applied to humans only) are prominent. Each of these approaches provides distinct insights into how individuals learn and interact with the world around them, yet they also come with unique strengths and weaknesses. Here I will outline the fundamental differences between these three theories, delving into their key features, criticisms, and the implications for understanding learning processes. My motivations for comparing and exploring these theories are tethered to my desire to understand how humans and other animals (particularly horses and dogs), learn and interact with each other without having to use completely separate and incompatible theories for each species.

(Cover picture of Marianne working with Skye while training for search and rescue (SARDA) in Scotland).

Behaviourism

Behaviourism is characterised by its focus on observable behaviour and the principle of conditioning, where learning is understood in terms of stimulus-response relationships. This approach operates under the “black box” concept, treating the mind as an opaque entity with little regard for the internal cognitive processes that mediate behaviour. By emphasising external factors, such as reinforcement and punishment, behaviourism seeks to explain learning without delving into the complexities of thoughts, emotions, or motivations. While this can lead to clear, measurable outcomes, behaviourism has been criticised for oversimplifying the learning process and failing to account for the richness of experience.

Limitations of behaviourism

Critics of behaviourism argue that its focus on observable behaviour leads to the “black box” problem, which neglects the internal mental processes that contribute to learning. This can oversimplify experience, as behaviourism tends to reduce learning to mere stimulus-response associations. Additionally, behaviourism struggles to account for the complexities of language acquisition and the generative aspects of language use, as its models do not adequately address the role of cognition and social interactions in language learning. The emphasis on external reinforcement further presents limitations, as behaviours are considered to be performed primarily for rewards rather than for intrinsic understanding or motivation. This perspective also diminishes the recognition of agency.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism emerged as a counter to behaviourism, redirecting focus onto the internal mental processes involved in learning, such as perception, memory, and problem-solving. It likens the mind to a computer, emphasising the processing of information through the manipulation of mental representations and schemas. This approach recognises learning as a complex interplay of thoughts and cognitive strategies, allowing for the possibility of deeper understanding and insight generation.

Cognitive theories introduced significant advancements in understanding phenomena such as language acquisition, and they have fostered an appreciation for the ways in which prior knowledge influences the assimilation of new information. In this regard, cognitivism has provided important frameworks that underscore the active role of learners in shaping their understanding.

Limitations of Cognitivism

Despite its contributions, cognitivism has faced considerable criticism, particularly concerning its reliance on abstract symbols and representations. In our podcast conversation (Part 2. Exploring Learning Theories with David Farrokh: An ecological (systems) approach in practice.) David Farrokh highlights the “symbol grounding problem,” a significant issue wherein cognitivism fails to adequately explain how mental symbols relate to the real world and integrate into actual experiences. This lack of connection makes it challenging to understand how learning and comprehension emerge from purely abstract processing. Moreover, David argues that the deterministic and abstract nature of cognitivist frameworks overlooks the dynamic aspects of behaviour, resulting in a disconnection between cognitive processes and real-world actions.

Cognitivism also tends to neglect the embodied nature of learning, failing to recognise how physical and environmental interactions shape cognitive processes, which limits its applicability to practical learning scenarios. Additionally, the complexity of behaviour is often inadequately addressed within cognitivism, as it can become overly reliant on simplified cognitive models that do not capture the full breadth of human or other species interactions.

Ecological Psychology

Ecological psychology emphasises the dynamic interplay between organisms and their environments, presenting a view of learning that is rooted in the concept of “affordances”, opportunities for action that the environment offers based on an individual’s intentions and capabilities. This perspective encourages a departure from abstract cognitive representations, focusing instead on how individuals actively perceive and interact with their surroundings. Learning is conceptualised not as mere internal processing but as a fluid and situated activity, where understanding is shaped by real-world context and engagement.

A significant advantage of this approach is its consideration of individual agency; learners are seen as active participants who navigate their environments purposefully, adapting their behaviours in response to the myriad affordances they encounter. This provides a holistic view of learning that accounts for environmental, situational, and contextual factors, including the nested influences of different contexts and timeframes on behaviour, allowing for a more comprehensive understanding of learning.

Limitations of Ecological Psychology

While ecological psychology offers valuable insights, it also presents certain limitations. The complexity of affordances, which are central to this approach, can lead to ambiguity, as determining which affordances are perceived and how they vary among individuals can be challenging. Moreover, the strong emphasis on context may hinder the establishment of generalisable learning principles applicable across diverse situations, leading to some frustration from those who wish for simple linear rules to supporting learning.

Critics also point out that ecological psychology tends to undervalue internal cognitive processes, which can result in an incomplete perspective on how people mentally conceptualise their interactions with the environment. Furthermore, the qualitative nature of ecological research can complicate efforts to measure and quantify behaviour.

Conclusion

Behaviourism, cognitivism, and ecological psychology each provide unique lenses through which to understand learning and behaviour. A strength of ecological psychology is its focus on real-world interactions and the agency of individuals, presenting a nuanced view that accounts for the dynamic relationships between organisms and their environments. Behaviourism, while historically significant, has faced criticism for its reductive approach to learning, overlooking the organism and the complexity of cognition and emotional factors. On the other hand, cognitivism has contributed significantly to the understanding of internal mental processes but overlooks the environment and grapples with the symbol grounding problem, emphasising abstract representations at the expense of real-world applicability.

As research continues to increase our understanding of both human and other animal learning and behaviour, the more it is evident that other animals are more like us than previously believed. The learning abilities of many other animals, along with the recognition of the implications of evolution, would necessitate that our learning has evolved over millennia and cannot be incompatibly different to that of other animals. Ecological psychology claims to be applicable to all organisms, human and non human. This opens up an opportunity for research to gain a better understanding of learning and skill acquisition in all animals, including multi-species (such as human-horse-dog) interactions.

Bibliography:

Part 2. Exploring Learning Theories with David Farrokh: An ecological (systems) approach in practice. https://www.buzzsprout.com/1975020/episodes/15754250

Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are?: Frans de Waal. 2017

Beyond Words: What Animals Think and Feel. Carl Safina. 2020

Posted on

Navigating Fear and Confidence: A conversation with Dr Rebecca Williams of Smart Climbing.

In this episode of the River Tiger podcast, I’m thrilled to welcome Dr. Rebecca Williams, a consultant clinical psychologist and climbing coach I have known for a long time. I’ve been eager to get her on the podcast for some time to discuss her insights into fear management and its role in adventure and equestrian sports, which I believe is such an important topic for athletes everywhere.

As Rebecca introduced herself, I was fascinated to hear about her background in clinical psychology—nearly 25 years in the field—and how her passion for climbing intertwined with her work. Rebecca admitted that she started out focusing on the technical aspects of climbing, but it quickly became clear to her that the mental side was where she could make a significant impact. I could relate to her journey, as I’ve seen first-hand how anxiety and self-doubt can hinder performance, mine and those I coach, whether in climbing, paddling, horse riding, or any high-risk sport.

We began by diving into the common misconception that fear and confidence are two sides of the same coin. Rebecca pointed out that many people think if you just eliminate fear, you’ll automatically feel more confident. But she clarified, “Fear is a natural and necessary emotion. We need it for our survival.” This really struck a chord with me. I’ve often seen many people try to push through fear without addressing it, thinking that sheer willpower or meditation and other cognitive exercises, would make it go away. But Rebecca emphasised that recognising and managing fear is crucial, it’s not about ignoring it.

We touched on the idea of fear being information. She said something that resonated deeply: “Fear is telling you something important.”

Then we delved into how women often face disproportionate societal pressures that can diminish their self-confidence in sports. Rebecca shared insights about how the environment we’re in and the people we surround ourselves with can influence our choices. I couldn’t help but think about my own experiences ice climbing with another woman for the first time. It felt liberating to make choices and decisions myself rather than just following along behind someone.

We also discussed the challenges that come with significant life changes, like puberty and menopause. Rebecca framed it beautifully, pointing out that learning and skill development isn’t a linear path. Sometimes you feel like you take two steps forward and three steps back. Her perspective reminded me of how important it is to have patience with ourselves in this journey.

As our conversation evolved, we addressed traumatic experiences in sports—like serious injuries or witnessing accidents. Rebecca made it clear that going through such events requires a thorough re-evaluation of our values and beliefs about risk. This topic hits very close to home for me; after my ex-husband’s paragliding accident, I struggled for years with my ability to step up in front of a crowd to give a keynote or deliver to big groups. It’s a complex emotional journey, and Rebecca emphasised that it’s essential to take small steps back into the activity while being kind to ourselves.

We chatted about falling practice, a common recommendation in climbing. It was interesting to hear Rebecca challenge the idea that simply practicing falling is the solution to overcoming fear of falls. She suggested focusing on how to land safely instead, framing it as landing practice. This suggested how having a physical and psychologically safe environment is critical for athletes and participants. There’s a fine balance between learning the physical skills and addressing the emotional aspects tied to fear.

Before wrapping up, Rebecca highlighted her books, “Climb Smarter” and the “Fear of Falling Workbook,” both filled with valuable insights and practical tools for athletes looking to manage their anxiety and build confidence. I loved hearing about her upcoming events, like workshops on risk management with Mountain Rescue Teams.

Overall, I left our conversation feeling reflective, especially regarding the interplay of fear, confidence, skill development, and emotional intelligence in sports. Acknowledging fear is not a barrier to overcome, but a rich source of information we can learn from. I believe this episode will be beneficial not just for coaches and athletes but for anyone navigating high-pressure situations. I can’t wait to explore these themes further in future episodes!

To listen to the full conversation click here https://www.buzzsprout.com/1975020/15695564

About my guest:
Dr Rebecca Williams BSc D ClinPsy is a Consultant Clinical Psychologist and performance psychology coach, working with climbers for the last 18 years.  She’s trained and experienced in psychotherapy, including CBT and ACT, holds a level 7 certificate in coaching and mentoring, and is a qualified climbing instructor (RCI).

Rebecca has delivered thousands of hours of individual coaching, group workshops, coach education and lectures, for climbers and coaches interested in improving their headgame for climbing.  She has facilitated workshops for Mountain Training Association, the Diploma in Mountain Medicine, NICAS, the British Mountaineering Council (BMC), and many climbing and mountaineering clubs.  In 2018, she delivered the psychology keynote speech at the International Rock Climbing Research Association Congress in Chamonix, and is a founder member of the International Association of Psychologists in Climbing.  She is passionate about using making psychology accessible and practical, and translating psychological research into mainstream techniques and coaching practices.

www.smartclimbing.co.uk

Author: Climb Smarter: Mental Skills and Techniques for Climbing

https://www.sequoia-books.com/catalog/climb/

Posted on

Exploring Movement, Adaptability, and Anti-Fragility with Dr. Paula Silva

In episode 31 of The River Tiger podcast, I had the privilege of engaging in a conversation with Dr. Paula Silva about embodied movement, adaptability, and the fascinating concept of anti-fragility. Paula’s expertise in biomechanics, movement, and the ecological approach to skill acquisition provides a rich framework for understanding how we can optimise human (and horse) potential and performance.

Embodied movement and the impact of normalisation

We began our discussion by addressing a common misconception in physical therapy and coaching: the notion that attempting to normalise movement patterns may be harmless. Paula emphasised that enforcing idealised movement patterns can be detrimental. By focusing exclusively on specific biomechanical norms, coaches and therapists may inadvertently restrict an individual’s capacity for adaptive and creative movements. This approach can even degrade a person’s ability to express functional movement patterns essential for their daily activities or athletic performance.

This insight stems from Paula’s journey in physical therapy, which began in Brazil. As she studied biomechanics and movement, she noticed a disconnection between what patients desired and the rigid parameters of standardised rehabilitation practices. Patients often found that the prescribed movements failed to translate into real-world functionality. The realisation that our movement capabilities are shaped by context led Paula to embrace an ecological perspective, which recognises the dynamic interplay between the individual and their environment.

The concepts of resilience and anti-fragility

A significant portion of our conversation revolved around understanding resilience and anti-fragility, particularly in relation to athletes and rehabilitation clients. Resilience, Paula explained, can be understood as an individual’s ability to maintain performance under stress or recover from perturbations. In contrast, anti-fragility refers to growth and improvement that arise from exposure to stressful conditions.

By practicing movement in varied, challenging contexts, individuals can cultivate anti-fragile responses that enhance their ability to adapt and thrive when faced with new or unforeseen challenges. Paula illustrated this concept using the analogy of training a muscle: to stimulate growth, one must expose that muscle to increased resistance and variability rather than merely focusing on perfecting the same movement repeatedly.

This distinction is crucial in athletic training, where the objective should be to establish the capacity to adapt to fluctuating environments rather than fixating solely on perfect biomechanics. The integration of variability in training allows athletes to explore a wider range of movement patterns, equipping them with the necessary skills to respond effectively to uncertain situations they may encounter in competition.

Playing with dosages and variability

The idea of dosage and optimal practice in training also emerged as an important theme in our discussion. Paula and I explored how appropriate doses of challenge, offering just enough variability to encourage exploration without overwhelming the athlete or reducing motivation, can help prevent injury and foster adaptability. As athletes practice movements with different degrees of difficulty or in unfamiliar contexts, they develop better perception-action coupling and, in turn, become more anti-fragile.

In equestrian sports, this approach could translate to training horses in diverse environments rather than relying solely on uniform, controlled conditions. Horses that have access to varied terrains and contexts may benefit from increased adaptability, leading to better performance and reduced risk of injury.

Navigating the athletic landscape: An ecological approach

As we continued our conversation, Paula reflected how, as coaches and therapists, we need to shift our focus from rigid, prescriptive methods while recognising that everyone’s body is unique. Therefore, allowing for variations in movement patterns is imperative for both skill development and personal expression.

One core tenet of this ecological understanding is the acknowledgment of the multi-faceted complexity of learning and performance environments. Paula stressed the importance of training in settings that mirror actual performance scenarios to promote effective problem-solving skills. By simulating real-life challenges and allowing athletes to practice responding to dynamic situations, coaches can facilitate the development of movement, perceptual, and decision-making skills that align with athletic demands.

Creating a culture of exploration and curiosity

Another pivotal aspect of our dialogue was the importance of creating a culture that supports exploration within coaching. Paula noted that fostering an environment where athletes feel encouraged to experiment and express movement is essential for learning and performance. Instead of enforcing strict biomechanics or perfectionist ideals, coaches should celebrate diversity in movement and support athletes in discovering their unique movement solutions.

This notion highlighted the need for vulnerability, where mistakes are embraced as a natural part of the learning process. Paula’s observations reflect the idea that adaptability and creativity thrive when individuals are encouraged to step outside of their comfort zones, ensuring that they become resilient and anti-fragile athletes in the long run.

Conclusion: Empowering athletes through adaptive movement

My conversation with Dr. Paula Silva shed light on the multifaceted nature of movement, adaptability, and anti-fragility. By understanding the significant interplay between movements and environmental contexts, coaches and therapists can create training programs that empower individuals to explore, adapt, and grow through their experiences.

This discussion underscores the importance of fostering a training culture that values curiosity and exploration. By prioritising movement variability and embracing individuality, we can unlock the full potential of athletes (human and horse), leading to performance breakthroughs and enriched experiences in the world of equestrian sports and beyond. As we continue to unravel the complexities of movement skill acquisition, we need to focus on adaptability as an essential pillar of effective coaching and athletic training.

 

 

My podcast with Dr Paula Silva

Part 1. Becoming anti-fragile: The importance of training for growth beyond resilience. A conversation with Dr Paula Silva.

https://www.buzzsprout.com/1975020/12825589

 

Raph Saib (ecobrazilianjiutiteiro) on Instagram made this super reel after listening to my podcast with Paula.

 

Posted on

Insights from ‘Stepping outside the Matrix: (Re)examining our relationships with horses.’

Insights from My Conversation with Renate Larssen

 

In the world of equestrianism, the bond between humans and horses is often romanticised as an unbreakable connection built on trust and understanding. However, a deeper exploration into this relationship reveals that our approach, training methods, and historical context often differ significantly from the romantic ideals and require a significant re-evaluation.

At the heart of this discussion is the importance of relationship building. Horses, like humans, are social animals that thrive on connections. Yet, our traditional training methods often prioritise obedience and control, side-lining the emotional needs and agency of the horse. It is crucial to foster a bond that is built on mutual respect, understanding, and not coercion and control. This requires us to move away from anthropomorphising and recognise that our horses have their own perspectives and experiences, a concept known as Umwelt, which emphasises viewing the world through the lived experiences of the horse.

Understanding the agency of horses is central to establishing effective communication with them. Horses are intelligent, sentient beings that express preferences, fears, and desires. Acknowledging their individuality and allowing them the freedom to express themselves, to have a voice, is vital. When we give them the options for choice, respect their choices and provide them with opportunities to engage in meaningful activities, we cultivate a relationship that is enriched and fulfilling for both parties.

An ecological perspective sheds light on the interconnectedness of all life forms and encourages us to consider our horses not just as our companions but as part of a larger system. This holistic view promotes a shift from an anthropocentric mindset, where humans are seen as the pinnacle of existence, to recognising the intrinsic value of horses as fellow sentient beings with their own needs and cultures.

The enrichment of environments plays a critical role in equine welfare. Horses should have spaces that allow for exploration, social interaction, and expression of natural behaviours. By creating dynamic environments, we can stimulate their cognitive development and enhance their overall well-being. Studies indicate that animals thrive in enriched settings, leading to happier and more adaptive individuals.

Furthermore, a critique of conventional training methods highlights the need to transition away from repetitive, uninspired drills toward approaches that foster active learning. Just as children benefit from engaging learning experiences, horses can also flourish when given opportunities to solve problems and make choices. This method encourages not only skill development but also deepens the horse-human connection.

As we navigate these transformations, it’s important to consider the historical and cultural influences that shape our perceptions of horses. Many of our practices stem from a military model that emphasises discipline and obedience, which is increasingly seen as outdated. These influences were as also prevalent in children’s physical education, sports, and coaching, but human activities have been moving away from these military influences for some time. Acknowledging this context helps us recognise that it is not just equestrian activities that need to unlearn harmful habits and adopt practices that prioritise empathy and compassion.

In summary, building meaningful relationships with our horses involves a profound shift in perspective. By integrating ethical considerations, respecting their autonomy, creating enriching environments, and embracing a holistic, ecological view, we can foster connections that honour the individuality of both horses and humans. As we embark on this journey toward deeper understanding, we not only enhance our horses’ quality of life but also enrich our own experiences as partners in this beautiful, intricate relationship.

Click the link below to listen to the podcast episode with Renate.

https://www.buzzsprout.com/1975020/12913782

 

Posted on

Anthropomorphism and Anthropocentrism in Equestrianism

Both anthropomorphism and anthropocentrism play significant roles in shaping attitudes, practices, and policies within equestrianism.

The terms “anthropomorphic” and “anthropocentric” refer to different concepts:

1. Anthropomorphic: This term comes from the Greek words “antrhopos” (human) and “morphe” (form). It describes the attribution of human characteristics, emotions, perceptions, intentions or behaviours to non-human entities, such as animals, gods, or inanimate objects. For example, in literature, a talking animal would be an example of anthropomorphism.

2. Anthropocentric: This term also comes from Greek roots, combining “anthropos” (human) and “kentron” (centre). It refers to a worldview that places humans at the centre of importance, often viewing human beings as the most significant entity in the universe. In this perspective, human needs and interests are prioritised over those of other species and the environment.

In summary, “anthropomorphic” relates to assigning human traits to non-humans, while “anthropocentric” concerns a worldview centred around human beings.

Anthropomorphism in Equestrianism

Definition Recap: Anthropomorphism involves attributing human traits, emotions, perceptions, or intentions to non-human entities.

Impact on Equestrianism:

1. Training Practices:

Trainers and riders may inadvertently project their own emotions and motivations onto horses. For example, if a horse seems reluctant to jump, a rider might interpret this as the horse being “scared” or “stubborn.” This perception might lead to training methods that prioritise emotional rapport rather than understanding the horse’s physical or psychological discomfort or abilities.

2. Horse Welfare:

People may anthropomorphise their horses by assuming they understand human emotions the same way humans do. For instance, a horse may not enjoy being pampered in the same way humans enjoy affection or comfort. This can lead to misunderstanding the horse’s needs; for example, a horse that enjoys freedom and space may be kept too much in close quarters or subjected to excess handling.

3. Storytelling and Branding:

Many equestrian brands and products leverage anthropomorphism in marketing, using imagery or narratives that portray horses in relatable, human-like scenarios. This can enhance emotional connections but might also skew public perception of how horses actually feel and behave.

 

Anthropocentrism in Equestrianism

Definition Recap: Anthropocentrism is a human-centred worldview that prioritises human needs and interests over those of other beings or the environment.

Impact on Equestrianism:

1. Resource Management:

In the equestrian industry, anthropocentrism can lead to prioritising land use for horse facilities or events without regard for the local ecosystem or wildlife. This may result in habitat destruction, overgrazing, and depletion of resources.

2. Therapeutic Riding Programs:

While therapeutic riding programs are often focused on human benefits (e.g., therapy for individuals with disabilities), there may be little emphasis on ensuring that the horses involved also receive adequate care, mental stimulation, and downtime. An anthropocentric view might overlook the horse’s well-being in favour of maximising therapeutic outcomes for humans.

3. Competitive Practices:

In competitive equestrian sports, the pressure to perform at high levels can lead to practices that may compromise horse welfare for the sake of human enjoyment or achievement. Issues such as overtraining, insufficient rest, and the use of performance aids can emerge from a focus that values human goals above the health of the horse.

 

Conclusion

Both anthropomorphism and anthropocentrism play significant roles in shaping attitudes, practices, and policies within equestrianism. While anthropomorphism can enhance emotional connections between humans and horses, it may also lead to misconceptions about equine behaviour and needs. On the other hand, anthropocentrism can drive practices that are not always aligned with the well-being of horses or the environment. Balancing these perspectives with an understanding of equine psychology, physiology and welfare is key to fostering a more ethical and sustainable approach to equestrianism.

To move forward, equestrianism needs to move away from anthropomorphism and anthropocentrism. Two concepts that may help are those of umwelt (a term popularised by biologist Jakob von Uexküll, refers to the unique subjective world experienced by an organism based on its sensory capabilities and interactions with the environment) and telos (derived from ancient Greek philosophy, refers to the inherent purpose, goal, or end towards which something naturally tends. It is often associated with teleology, the study of purpose or design in nature).

To explore the concepts of umwelt and telos in more detail read the article Can the concepts of Umwelt and Telos help us to understand our horses better?